Synthesis methods of tungsten disulfide, free download

Nanotechnology has found applications in a range of fields, including the environment, energy, food, and medicine. Nanoparticles are employed in biomedical applications because they have several advantages over bulk materials, including a higher surface-to-volume ratio, improved magnetic characteristics, thermal stability, and improved optical and mechanical properties. Despite the widespread use of NPs stated in Introduction, there is still a lack of ample knowledge about NP-mediated toxicity.

Nanoparticle toxicity due to oxidative stress is well documented, restricting their usage in human patients. In this context, using carboxy-2 , 7 - dichlorofluorescein diacetate H 2 DCFDDA assay, the function of oxidative stress in the toxicity of iron oxide NPs against murine macrophage J cells was examined. Subsequently, when human microvascular endothelial cells were exposed to iron NPs, they showed an increase in permeability, ascribed to ROS generation.

Ahamed et al. These findings show that CuO NPs exerted genotoxicity in A cells, which could be due to oxidative stress. Likewise, using the Alamar blue assay, the cytotoxicity of CuO, silicon oxide, and ferric oxide NPs against human laryngeal epithelial cells HEp-2 was examined. CuO-induced oxidative stress was suggested by a considerable rise in amount of 8-isoprostanes and the ratio of oxidized glutathione to total glutathione [ ]. Their cellular toxicity was also examined at the molecular level.

They also triggered DNA damage, as demonstrated by an upsurge in formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase- Fpg- sensitive regions mediated by oxidative stress. Similarly, the impact of oxidative stress in the toxicity of ZnO NPs against human skin melanoma A cells was studied. ZnO NPs were reported to cause oxidative stress, as evidenced by lipid peroxidation and the depletion of antioxidant enzymes. The occurrence of oxidative damage in lipids and proteins of MRC-5 human lung fibroblasts after exposure to Au NPs was investigated in vitro by Li et al.

In addition, Au NP-treated cells produced considerably higher lipid hydroperoxides, indicating lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, oxidative damage was confirmed by verifying malondialdehyde MDA protein adducts using western blot study.

The impact of oxidative stress on the cytotoxic and genotoxic potential of Ag NPs was investigated against human lung fibroblasts IMR and the human glioma U cell lines. Chairuangkitti et al. The oxidative stress-dependent activity of NPs is depicted in Figure 2. Several investigations using various human cells have added to our understanding of the underlying mechanism of NPs concerning ROS production. To a large extent, ROS formation causes cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and signaling and inflammatory response activation, revealing the mutagenic and carcinogenic properties of NPs [ 51 , , ].

However, because research reports vary, it is difficult to draw broad conclusions about shape and size. In the event of NP exposure to cells, ROS generation is enhanced and leads to hyperoxidation of cell organelles, disruption of mitochondrial activity, endoplasmic reticulum ER stress, and unfolded protein response [ , — ]. Mitochondrial and ER stresses have cumulative effects on cell ROS production and apoptotic cell death, referred to as cytotoxicity [ 35 , ].

Furthermore, NPs in the nucleus cause oxidative base damages 8-oxoguanine , strand breakage, and mutations in DNA, resulting in genotoxicity [ — ].

For instance, Chen and Schluesener [ ] demonstrated that, to the human primary organ system, silver is relatively nontoxic and nonmutagenic.

In contrast to antimicrobial metallic NPs Au, Pt, Cu, Zn, Ti, and so on , silver is recognized to have the most potent antibacterial activity. Furthermore, free radicals induced by Ag NPs reduce glutathione to glutathione disulfide that leads to oxidative stress, apoptosis, and stimulation of oxidative signaling pathways [ 51 , 90 , , , ].

The cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and inflammatory response of Ag NPs in cells have raised concerns about their unintended human exposure [ ]. Dakal et al. The most devastating and undeniable issue with using silver or any other nanoparticles in humans is their biosafety and biocompatibility.

Several methods for the synthesis of NPs have been developed, but their use in biomedical applications is limited due to the use of toxic compounds, the high energy requirements, and the formation of toxic by-products.

The choice of a solvent medium, an environmentally friendly reducing agent, and a nontoxic substance for NP stabilization are all important components to consider during the NP preparation process [ ]. In this context, green synthesis, which encompasses synthesis through plants, bacteria, fungi, algae, and others, is an effective way for generating NPs [ 64 , ] as shown in Figure 3 a. The ability of numerous biological entities, such as those indicated above, to generate metal nanoparticles for diverse pharmacological applications has been extensively researched.

In general, plant extracts and microorganisms are used in the green, environmentally acceptable synthesis of NPs [ 65 , 66 ]. Furthermore, phyto-mediated synthesis is preferable to microbial synthesis, which requires time-consuming and expensive downstream processing [ 71 ].

The plant extract is combined with a metal salt solution in the green synthesis of metal nanoparticles. The electrochemical potential of a metal ion and the pH of the reaction mixture, temperature, concentration, and reaction time are all critical aspects to consider. The phytoconstituents promote metal ion reduction to zero-valent state, followed by nucleation and growth to generate metal NPs [ 72 , , ] as depicted in Figure 3 b. The plant-mediated synthesis is attributed to protein, phenols, terpenoids, ascorbic acid, and flavonoids that are capable of reducing the ions to nanosize and capping of nanoparticles [ , ].

This method has several advantages, including energy savings due to the lack of high energy and pressure, use of biological entities that work as both reducing and stabilizing agents, environmental friendliness, lower costs, and the capacity to be employed on a large scale [ 64 , 68 , 69 , ].

Green synthesis is an innovative method of synthesizing phytoantioxidant functionalized NPs using plant extracts.

It is gaining popularity as a result of its cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and large-scale production capabilities. As the importance of green synthesis using plant extracts is already highlighted in Section 5 , in Table 1 , the antioxidant potential of phytoantioxidant functionalized nanoparticles is shown.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis demonstrated excellent ability to synthesize copper NPs at optimal temperatures. The action of DBTE is believed to be due to its substantial ascorbic acid content [ ]. Subsequently, Au NPs were synthesized using Rhus coriaria , which is used as a reducing and capping agent. The plant polyphenols may play a role in reducing gold ions, as evident from FT-IR analysis. In vitro , antioxidant activity studies showed that DPPH Hippophae rhamnoides leaves were utilized by Kalaiyarasan et al.

The activity of Ag NPs has enhanced by more than tenfold when compared to that of the plant extract alone, which can be attributable to the presence of plant phytochemicals, including flavonoids. Due to these flavonoids and silver ions, antioxidant activity may occur via a single electron transfer mode [ , ].

Similarly, Ag NPs developed using Costus after leaves were more effective DPPH scavengers than the leaf extract alone, and their antioxidant activity was comparable to those of ascorbic acid with [ ]. The BHT was used as a standard. The findings significantly support the use of Ag NPs as natural antioxidants against oxidative stress-linked degenerative disorders [ ].

Ag NPs synthesized using Cestrum nocturnum leaves, when evaluated for antioxidant activity, were found more active scavengers of DPPH Further, Ag NPs showed The H 2 O 2 scavenging is well related to the presence of phenolic components in the samples [ ]. Interestingly, Ag NPs synthesized using a spice blend exhibited and The different functional groups of spice blends present on the surface of Ag NPs could be responsible for the activity [ ].

Psidium guajava leaves were utilized by Wang et al. The action is due to the involvement of numerous plant functional groups attached to the surface of Ag NPs [ ]. The primary phytochemicals responsible for the antioxidant capacity are phenolics and flavonoids, abundant in PF [ ]. Moreover, Morus alba leaves were utilized by Das et al. The lowest IC 50 Likewise, Ansar et al.

The antioxidant capacity of these nanoparticles could be attributed to the abundance of surface fabricated flavonoids and phenolics as capping agents [ ]. In another study, Akintola et al. Ag NPs had a maximum reduction capability of In addition, Rajput et al.

In addition, the scavenging ranged between The antioxidant activity of phytoantioxidant functionalized NPs is related to the bioactive composition of the plant. The substantial body of research, including those selected in this study, did not go into extensive depth about plant selection. However, the selection of antioxidant-rich plants is the most important factor in the activity of phytoantioxidant functionalized NPs.

The frequency of methodologies utilized for characterization of NPs, their significance, methods used for assessing antioxidant activity, plant parts used in green synthesis, and choice of NPs were all examined critically. Surprisingly, all of the free radicals were successfully scavenged by the tested NPs. On the other hand, almost all plant parts have been used, but leaves are primarily harvested to synthesize NPs Figure 4 and Table 1.

Ag NPs are frequently employed in practice due to their inclusion in various formulations; the majority of researchers are currently focusing on these NPs, with silver topping the list of studies, followed by gold, copper, iron, and zinc oxide NPs. The most common approach for measuring surface plasmon resonance and investigating the optical characteristics of produced NPs is UV-visible absorption spectroscopy, followed by FT-IR analysis to identify functional groups corresponding to surface-attached bioactive compounds responsible for reduction and stabilization.

In 14, 21, and 18 investigations included in this study , the shape and size of produced NPs were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and X-ray diffraction analysis. Dynamic light scattering analysis was also used to determine hydrodynamic size and surface charge. Zeta potential measurements were carried out to assess NP stability; a relatively high zeta potential value shows that the surface has a substantial electric charge, demonstrating its stability.

Furthermore, elemental analysis was carried out using energy-dispersive X-ray analysis EDX , which is used to detect impurities [ 67 , , , , , , ]. Antioxidant defenses mitigate the detrimental effects of ROS and RNS, which are generated by a variety of endogenous and external mechanisms [ 88 ]. The phytoconstituents upregulate the level of antioxidant enzymes, and SOD is a significant force in radical neutralization [ ].

Glutathione-S-transferase and glucosephosphate dehydrogenase are two other antioxidant enzymes [ ]. GPx inhibits the peroxynitrite anion produced by numerous interactions, such as when combined with carbon dioxide to make nitrosoperoxycarbonate, which disintegrates over time to form nitrogen dioxide and carbonate radicals [ , ].

The phytoconstituents on nanoparticle surfaces reduce oxidative stress [ 72 ]. In Figure 5 , a mechanistic approach to the protective impact of phytoantioxidant functionalized nanoparticles in the regulation of oxidative stress is highlighted. The abundance of terpenoids, ascorbic acid, flavonoids, phenols, and other bioactive phytoconstituents on the surface of NPs is strongly correlated with their antioxidant activity [ , ]. The phytoantioxidant functionalized nanoparticles would upregulate the antioxidant enzymes, and nonenzymatic components such as ascorbic acid on the surface of these NPs would also neutralize the adverse effects of free radicals.

In conclusion, the evidence of oxidative stress caused by nanoparticle exposure raises concerns about their use in humans. Although the antioxidant potential of phytoantioxidant functionalized NPs is well documented, the majority of the researches have been conducted in vitro. The bioactive substances like flavonoids and phenols are correlated to the antioxidant action of these NPs.

The stability of nanoparticles is an important aspect, but only three articles have investigated the storage stability of these NPs. Most studies lack a zeta potential measurement, which is an indicator of stability. The data compiled in this review is expected to serve as a roadmap for researchers to fulfill various gaps. It is suggested that the plant utilized for green synthesis should be selected carefully, as antioxidant action is linked to phytoconstituents.

As an alternative to NPs, phytoantioxidant functionalized NPs could be employed; however, high-quality toxicity studies are necessary. The final submitted version of the manuscript has been seen and approved by all contributors.

The authors A. Graphical abstract. Supplementary Materials. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Article of the Year Award: Outstanding research contributions of , as selected by our Chief Editors. Read the winning articles. Journal overview. Special Issues. Academic Editor: Dragica Selakovic. Received 30 Jul Revised 19 Sep Accepted 04 Oct Published 26 Oct Abstract Nanotechnology is gaining significant attention, with numerous biomedical applications.

Search and Inclusion Criteria Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases have been searched in this review with various keywords like oxidative stress, its related disorders, reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, mechanism of action, the toxicity of nanoparticles, oxidative stress-induced toxicity of nanoparticles, green synthesis, and antioxidant activity of nanoparticles.

Oxidative Stress and Its Related Disorders: A Brief Overview Free radicals are strongly reactive atoms or molecules with unpaired electrons in their exterior shell and can be generated when oxygen reacts with specific molecules [ 73 ].

Figure 1. Various indications associated with the generation of oxidative stress. Figure 2. Mechanistic aspects of oxidative stress-mediated nanoparticle-induced toxicity. Figure 3. Reproduced from Kumar et al. Nanoparticle type Plant part used Reaction time temp. DPPH: IC 50 between 5. IC 50 between Table 1. Characterization and antioxidant profile of phytoantioxidant functionalized nanoparticles.

Figure 4. Frequency of methods used for a NP characterization, b antioxidant studies, c plant part used, and d types of NPs. Figure 5. Role of phytoantioxidant functionalized nanoparticles in ameliorating oxidative stress.

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